LaLonde Hist 300

My Paper

Dyslexia: The Long Path to Equal Rights

 In studying the American childhood it is important to study a full spectrum of the experiences children have as they grow and how it affects them as a child and into adulthood.  One of the important experiences of ones childhood is the gaining of some form of education.  Today’s world is increasing reliant on communication which creates a reliance on literacy.  Unfortunately this important communication skill is not easily learned for many children of normal intelligence within our schools today.  These children are known as dyslexic and the concepts of language prove to be difficult for them and therefore can make the experience of childhood difficult as they try to adjust to a world that over the past century has become increasingly reliant on written communication. 

Dyslexia is a very complex disorder that is believed to affect 5 to 10 percent of our population within the

United   States

.  Although dyslexia has been studied for well over a hundred years, little is known about the causes of the disorder and how it affects the child in educational and social growth. In attempting to understand our current concepts of what dyslexia is one must explore the disabilities social movement of the later 20th century to explore how dyslexia (learning disabilities) fit into the movement and explore some trends that are currently recognized that bring some question of what the legislation from these movements have established.

Furthermore, the history of legislation on behalf of the disabled is important to understand in order to see how dyslexia evolved from being coupled with all other disabilities to an issue with its own specific legislation.  In addition to this, one must recognize the social ramifications for persons with dyslexia because this is what drives future legislation and change. It is easiest to understand the complex social issues by first having an understanding of past legislation because it sets the scene for society’s actions.

To begin, the end of World War II marked the start of a new age in American history and new possibilities for disabled individuals.  The first of these changes for the disabled occurred when many of the men from our armed forces returned from the war with physical disabilities that were suffered abroad.  This posed a problem of employment for many of the returning soldiers.  To combat this President Harry Truman signed PL-176 in 1945 creating an annual National Employ the Handicapped week.  A media campaign was launched by the Presidents Committee of Employment in 1947 using movie trailers, billboards, radio, and television ads to convince the public that it was “good business to hire the handicapped.”[1]

          The second less obvious change was in how Americans began to look at themselves, and how they acted toward minorities within the population, including handicapped persons. During the War the Germans killed an estimated 250,000 handicapped.[2] This was found to be appalling to citizens of the

United States

who prided themselves on being the “good” in opposition to the “evil” of the fascists Nazis. Before and during World War II, many American handicapped persons were euthanized, purposefully and through neglect. If lucky to survive, many of the remaining were sterilized. Following the discovery of the atrocities performed on minorities of all kinds (including the handicapped), Americans strove to change their actions and opinions toward the “different” peoples of the population.  Affected by this backlash were policies that treated the disabled population as sub-human.[3]

The third change that sprung from the end of the war was the Parent’s Movement for disabled children.  These parents saw new opportunities with the economic prosperity brought on by the end of the war and began to organize to demand more services for their children.  Some examples of parent groups formed during this time are the Association for the Help of Retarded Children (AHRC), United Cerebral Palsy (UCP), and the Association for Retarded Children (ARC). These and other parental groups formed the base that would become the Disabled Rights Movement that would fuel later legislation in the 1970’s. These movements began the shift in thinking from the institutionalization of those with disabilities to rehabilitation.(Zames, 11) These early parent groups although formidable were weakened by a lack of cohesion and defined overriding goals for all disabled individuals, they instead concentrated on single disabilities.  Even with this being said it is important to recognize that “activists learned more than anyone had known before about the ability and potential of people with disabilities when they are treated as full human beings.”[4]

           The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950’s and 1960’s marked great changes in how many minority groups were treated in the

United States

, and also the broadening of acceptance for the disabled.  In 1961 President Kennedy appointed a special Presidential Panel of Mental Retardation that explored the need to upgrade the services in state institutions for the disabled.  President Kennedy stated that “we as a nation have long neglected the mentally ill and the mental retarded, this neglect must end.”[5] In 1962 the President’s Committee on Employment of the Physically Handicapped was renamed the President’s Committee on Employment of the Handicapped which marked a recognition of special needs and a new interest in the employment of individuals of cognitive and mental disability.[6] This established new ground in which the physically and the mentally disabled were put on common but separate ground, which forms the base of later legislation.

           President Kennedy and Family were also able to bring further attention to mental disability through his sister Rosemary who had a mental disability and was institutionalized when she was in her twenties.  The Kennedy’s did not speak of Rosemary until 1962 in an article by Eunice Kennedy Shriver in the Saturday Evening Post.  It was a heart felt article reminiscent of literature produced by the parent organizations earlier discussed. The article was read by millions and was able to further convince families that there was no shame in having a disabled individual within the family. According to many this may have been the most important legacy left by the Kennedy’s.[7]

          While Kennedy was able to bring attention to people with disabilities President Johnson was able to pursue his civil rights agenda and War on Poverty, both of which indirectly assisted many people of disability.  The Equal Opportunity Act of 1964 created programs such as Head Start, Volunteers in Service to

America

, and the Neighborhood Youth Corporation which all provided services to the disabled and their families. These programs were established to assist the disabled in learning, personal care, employment, and housing.[8] President Johnson also created the President’s Committee on Mental Retardation which created a standing committee whose purpose is to act as an advisory to the President and the Secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services on matters that concern programs and services for people of intellectual disability.[9] These two pieces of legislation put disabilities on the forefront of government policy.

          Even with this time of great social change occurring in the American Civil Rights Movement we find very little legislation solely directed at the problem of our learning disabled population.  All legislation for disabilities was coupled with another cause. Within the civil rights movement itself many groups that garnered more attention like the women’s and minority rights movement avoided close association with the disability rights movement. 

          The 1970’s marked a landmark decade in disability reform legislation in which many legislative measures were made for the improvement of opportunities for the disabled.  The first of these landmark legislative measures was The Rehabilitation Act of 1973.  This act states under Section 504 that “No otherwise qualified individual with a disability in the United States, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance or under any program or activity conducted by any Executive agency or by the United States.”[10] According to Richard Scotch these “regulations required state and local governments, schools and universities, health facilities, and many other entities to make their programs accessible to people with physical or mental disabilities.”[11] This act helped to promote the empowerment of individuals with disabilities through employment, economic self-sufficiency, independence and inclusion while ensuring the federal government plays a role in providing a strong requirement for the elimination of discrimination against the disabled.

          The Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (IDEA) was a major move in the improvement of education for the disabled learner. IDEA required free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive setting.  The principle of the law is that children with disabilities should not be denied the same opportunities offered to everyone else, everyone gets access to public education and therefore children with disabilities should not be denied.  Under this law when a child meets disability requirements that require special education then an Individualized Education Program (IEP) is created.  This IEP is then used to mark the student’s progress as they achieve their individual goals.  Under IDEA the school district becomes responsible for providing the disabled individual with the necessary support and services needed depending on the disability.  These laws set the groundwork for future legislation in regards to disability rights in the

United States

.[12] 

Unfortunately in the 1980’s the focus of the government moved away from Americans with disabilities but in 1990 the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was signed into law.  The

ADA

was formed "to establish a clear and comprehensive prohibition of discrimination on the basis of disability."[13] The passage of this legislation displayed the "maturity and effectiveness" of the disabilities rights movement at a time of increasingly conservative government. The ADA draws on the precedents created by the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to define and prohibit discrimination based on disability.  Although the

ADA

provides powerful legislation to the disabled public it affects remain unclear "in the face of limiting judicial rulings and constraints on enforcement.[14]

As one can see the disability rights movement has progressed quite a bit since the early years of the parent run organizations of the late 1940's.  They have become a powerful lobbying group that can push through legislation even at the most socially restrictive times.  During the fifty years that marked this revolution in the rights of disabled individuals, legislation and court decisions that punished the discrimination against individuals with disabilities has shown great societal awareness. In addition to legislation, there were many studies that began researching the social component of disabled peoples, and dyslexia was one of the topics focused upon. It is essential for one to understand the social aspects of dyslexia because these facts are what drive lobbyists to demand for more direct legislation on this issue. Unfortunately, some students are still being overlooked, and better legislation could help to remedy this. To identify these problems one should examine the issues within gender and socioeconomic standing in receiving help for dyslexia and other learning disabilities.

The first of these issues is the unbalanced ratio within the gender of those children identified with dyslexia. There are more boys diagnosed with dyslexia by a ratio of 3:1 and this seems to be weighted unfairly.  According to current research it appears that girls are under diagnosed for a couple of reasons.  First girls tend to mature in reading and writing skills much faster than boys and this creates a focus on the slower developing boys in a classroom setting.  Secondly learning disability referrals are in some ways inadvertently used to create order and harmony within the classroom which once again creates a focus on the more disruptive male students.  It is unfortunate to see that girls are falling through the system but it is more understandable when looking closer at the facts.

First, Herman Epstein in 1975 performed a study in which girls were found to have greater propensity to reading and writing, in comparison to boys, which could account for the higher percentage of dyslexic boys to girls consistently found within the education system of the

United   States

. To expound the study examined the rate of progress in reading and writing skills within groups of boys and girls and found that within the first years of learning up to the age of 7, girls progressed at a much faster rate than their male counterparts. The study continued to follow the same children and consistently showed that girls progressed further in reading and writing proficiency. At the age of 15 the girls from the study began to plateau while the boys experienced a steady growth of ability until the gender gap was found to close by the age of 18. Due to the results of the study one could infer that boys’ slower development in reading and writing skills leads to more attention paid to their “deficiency” in comparison to their female counterparts which would lead to increased attention from the instructor to possible problems in learning such as dyslexia.[15]

Similarly gender bias within the classroom can lead to the skewing of the ratio of boys to girls that are found to have a learning disability or dyslexia.  According to "Gender Bias and Special Education" by K. Anderson the behavior of boys within the classroom demand more of a teachers attention and therefore more of there learning difficulties are observed. This is not all to be the fault of the teachers, where overcrowded classrooms and mounting responsibilities are part of our modern public school systems.  While boys are shown to be more aggressive with their frustration girls are found to be quite and meek. As

Anderson

states the “girls good behavior frees the teacher to work with the more difficult to manage boys.”[16] Through the girls’ good behavior they go unnoticed and with that lack of the teacher’s attention their possible need for special education can be overlooked.[17]

Second, numerous studies exist of individuals who have overcome the difficulties in learning that are associated with dyslexia.  The problem that is found with this is that the vast majority of the individuals that overcome the educational barriers that are associated with dyslexia come from social classes that can afford the early testing and resources that can help them reach success early while others are relegated to struggle and fall behind their peers.  Many have argued that dyslexia is not a socioeconomic disorder. With this being said it must also be understood that although dyslexia within a child may not be socioeconomically determined the problems faced by many dyslexics are socioeconomic based. In examinations of the higher classes one will notice the very high levels of achievement throughout their scholastic endeavors and through adulthood.  The middle class has a fighting chance for success despite there school systems stagnate response to the issues of dyslexia and learning disabilities.  The position of those that fall in the lowest socioeconomic bracket is as you might expect, their struggles paint a much bleaker picture for success due to fluctuations in funding and attention to problems in curriculum and special education.  All students should have a clear and bright future but a low socioeconomic status can muddy that outlook.

To start this subject out on a happy note, dyslexic children of wealthy families get along just fine and are found to have high levels of achievement in adulthood.  In these independent and upper class suburban schools we find the parents to be very active and involved in the curriculum of there children.  As J. Chall points out in Learning to Read: The Great Debate the parents of these children do not “ask for results they demand them.”[18] Along with the parents demanding results from the school the parents also can afford the tutors and supplies needed to help their child overcome their educational block.  These children are found to receive the early testing that helps them adjust to school and methods of learning they will be taught in at an early age.  Many of these children go on to be successful, and this can be illustrated by a study following the post graduate lives of children who attended a

Dyslexic

School

in

Baltimore

for boys. In this study performed by Fenucci, Gottfred and Childs it was found that “these men had benefited from having been placed in a school environment that provided systematic instruction and encouraged accomplishment.”[19]  The study also shows a much higher rate of these individuals receiving bachelor degrees and performing at higher level jobs than the individuals with dyslexia that could not afford the luxury of this type of schooling.

Next, middle income schools are not as proficient at recognizing and assisting in dyslexic learning. Unfortunately there are no special schools for the dyslexic middle class students.  Instead there educational burdens fall on the parents and the overtaxed public school system.  Throughout educational history we find that middle class schools experience limited funding for programs and testing for dyslexia.  Therefore the responsibility to find tutors and educational resources for a dyslexic child falls directly on that child’s parent. Along with this we have a middle class outlook on the educational system that “if it isn't broke don't fix it.” As Chall states "the middle socioeconomic group seems to remain quite satisfied with the status quo."[20]  This trend has been consistent and "until the schools in the middle of the distribution commit themselves to improving reading instruction, reform efforts will remain a fringe movement, local and temporary."[21]

Finally, the students who are in the most dire need of help are the ones that are looked over the most. These are the children that make up our lowest social classes. Parents are found to not play strong enough roles in deciding curriculum in urban schools which leaves innovation to be triggered by public concern over achievement.  Although "innovation" in these schools does exist during periods of concern it is short lived as funding for these schools does not remain consistent.[22]  Parents of low socioeconomic status are less available to the needs of their child and may be ignorant to the enrichment opportunities offered at the school.  As one might figure the lower the economic status of the individual, the lower the amount of consistent help that is made available for dyslexia.

In conclusion it must be recognized that the disabilities movement of the later part of the 20^th century has achieved great things for disabled persons. It must also be noted that in the area of dyslexia more progress is still needed. The legislation for disabilities began as extremely broad, and hopefully the trend of narrowing focus will lead to specific action on the issue of dyslexia. With specific legislation, public schools will have the resources to identify and teach dyslexic students, and so even poor children will be given the chance to reach their potential. Presently the effect of dyslexia on a child’s life can be far-reaching and devastating, hopefully future legislation will remedy this barrier. 

 

 

 

 

 

Bibilography

Adams, Marilyn Jager. “The Great Debate Then and Now.” Annals of Dyslexia Vol. 47 (1997): 265-267.

“Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.” ed. One Hundred First Congress of the

United States of America

, 1990 accessed http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/pubs/ada.txt.

Anderson, Kristen G. “Gender Bias and Special Education.” Annals of Dyslexia Vol. 47(1997): 151-162.

Ansara, Alice. “Sex Differences in Dyslexia”.

Towson

,

MD

: The Orton Dyslexia Society, 1981.

Chall, Jeanne S. Learning to Read: The Great Debate.

New York

: McGraw-Hill, 1967.

Fleicher, Doris Zanes. The Disabilities Rights Movement: From Charity to Confrontation.

Philadelphia

:

Temple

University

Press, 2001

Finucci, Joan M. “A Follow-Up Study of Dyslexic Boys.” Annals of Dyslexia Vol. 35 (1986): 117-136.

Longmore, Paul. Disabilities History Timeline. The Rehabilitation and

Training

Center

on Independent Living Management, 2001, Accessed http://courses.temple.edu/neighbor/ds/disabilityrightstimeline.htm.

Malhorta,

Ravi

. “The Politics of the Disability Rights Movement.” In New Politics, Vol. 8, 2001, Accessed http://www.wpunj.edu/~newpol/issue31/malhot31.htm.

Parallels in Time: A History of Developmental Disabilities accessed http://www.mncdd.org/parallels/menu.html.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act accessed http://www.section508.gov/index.cgm?FuseAction=Content&ID=15.

Scotch, Richard K. “American Disability Policy in the Twentieth Century.” The New Disability History: American Perspectives (2001).

Snowling, Margaret J. Dyslexia. 2^nd ed.

Malden

MA

: Blackwell Publishers, 2000.

Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. Disabled Rights : American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality.

Washington

D.C.

:

Georgetown

University

Press, 2003.

The Presidential Committee for People with Intellectual Disabilities. “

Mission

.”

Washington

D.C.

: Administration for Children and Families accessed http://www.acf.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/pcpid/pcpid_mission.html.

 

 

 

---

[1] Malhorta,

Ravi

. “The Politics of the Disability Rights Movement.” In New Politics, Vol. 8, 2001, Accessed http://www.wpunj.edu/~newpol/issue31/malhot31.htm.

[2] ibid

[3] ibid

[4] Fleicher, Doris Zanes. The Disabilities Rights Movement: From Charity to Confrontation.

Philadelphia

:

Temple

University

Press, 2001: 9

[5] Parallels in Time:A History of Developmental Disabilities accessed http://www.mncdd.org/parallels/menu.html.

[6] Longmore, Paul. Disabilities History Timeline. The Rehabilitation and

Training

Center

on Independent Living Management, 2001, Accessed http://courses.temple.edu/neighbor/ds/disabilityrightstimeline.htm

[7] Parallels in Time: A History of Developmental Disabilities accessed http://www.mncdd.org/parallels/menu.html.

[8] Ibid

[9] The Presidential Committee for People with Intellectual Disabilities. “

Mission

.”

Washington

D.C.

: Administration for Children and Families accessed http://www.acf.acf.dhhs.gov/programs/pcpid/pcpid_mission.html.

[10] Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act accessed http://www.section508.gov/index.cgm?FuseAction=Content&ID=15.

[11] Scotch, Richard K. “American Disability Policy in the Twentieth Century.” The New Disability History: American Perspectives (2001): 382

[12] Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. Disabled Rights : American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality.

Washington

D.C.

:

Georgetown

University

Press, 2003: 61-64.

[13] “Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.” Ed. One Hundred First Congress of the

United   States of America

, 1990 accessed http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/pubs/ada.txt.

[14] Scotch, Richard K. “American Disability Policy in the Twentieth Century.” The New Disability History: American Perspectives (2001): 384.

[15] Snowling, Margaret J. Dyslexia. 2^nd ed.

Malden

MA

: Blackwell Publishers, 2000: 67.

[16] Anderson, Kristen G. “Gender Bias and Special Education.” Annals of Dyslexia Vol. 47(1997): 155.

[17] Ibid: 152-155

[18] Chall, Jeanne S. Learning to Read: The Great Debate.

New York

: McGraw-Hill, 1967: 289

 

[19] Finucci, Joan M. “A Follow-Up Study of Dyslexic Boys.” Annals of Dyslexia Vol. 35 (1986): 134.

[20] Chall, Jeanne S. Learning to Read: The Great Debate.

New York

: McGraw-Hill, 1967: 288

[21] Adams, Marilyn Jager. “The Great Debate Then and Now.” Annals of Dyslexia Vol. 47 (1997): 273.

[22] Ibid

Self Evaluation

mlalonde@gmu.edu

My experience of History 300 has presented me with a new and very different appreciation of the study of history.  In saying this I must acknowledge the overwhelming feelings I experienced at times with my research and class work.  This has brought a greater appreciation in me for those who study and research history.  With this being said I must say that my experience in this class, although sometimes overwhelming, was very enjoyable and I got a great deal out of my research in studying disabled individuals.  I have also identified some areas that must be identified and improved as I move closer to a professional career as a teacher.

In looking at my commitment to the course there are a few areas where I believe improvement could have been made.  My class attendance was generally good but I did miss two classes which, because the class only met once a week, put me behind.  Along the same lines I did find myself falling behind the assigned readings at the beginning of the semester,  with completion of the reading and assignments coming after the assigned date of completion. I did however devote a proper amount of time to study and research within this class.  At times I would have to say that I was a bit inconsistent in my research putting research off at times. 

I found the classes very informative and interesting.  It was especially constructive being able to hear one anothers topics and make suggestions to help in others research.  I must say it was extremely helpful receiving the advice of my fellow classmates and being able to see their progress in their papers.  I thought my participation during these sessions to be strong. 

I believe I also made steps in improving the way I attacked writing papers.  This paper needed to have more organization then any other paper then I have ever attempted.  With all the research gathered I needed to develop better methods of organizing my material and the result of that was better organization in my thoughts that are expressed in the paper.  When first attempting the writing of my paper I tried to jump in head first and it proved to be very difficult but once I slowed down and began to organize my thoughts and materials I found the paper had better flow.

Overall I found this class to be very helpful in my advancement as a student and my future as a teacher.  I realize I must improve with elements of my professionalism (timeliness) and with skills in organization.  Although I believe I have performed satisfactory in this course I must admit that I could have done more to fully reach my potential in this class.  Even with this being said the experience was very enjoyable.

#11: Paper Critique

The essay "Pathway to Playtime: Work, Education, and Family for Nineteenth Century Working-Class Children" by Shannon Rooke presents a picture of what the experience of childhood was for working class Canadian youth.  Within this essay Shannon creates a description of what was expected of the Canadian youth and their importance to the workforce.  This was explored through the examination of working conditions of children and the limited outside opportunities through education and professional training. 

Shannon establishes a very strong argument from the start by creating a strong thesis within the paper which was supported throughout the paper.  The paper examines the issues facing urban vs. rural youth, boys vs. girls, issues in education availability and professional training opportunities.  In looking at these issues Shannon uses statistical evidence through census data, surveys, and government legislation to backup here arguments.  Along with this Shannon includes the voice of children from this era so they are taking part in the story of their story of youth.  This builds a stronger connection between the reader and the experiences of these youth. 

Throughout my examination of this paper I found myself asking some questions I would have liked.  The first of these would be a broader explanation of the unstable economic market within Canada during the 19th century.  Further explanation of this would have left me with a better picture of conditions within Canada at this time.  Another thought that crossed my mind because of my own background in history being centered in United States history is the exploration of the Canadian childhood of the 19th century in comparison to the same groups (girls, boys, urban, socioeconomic class) to that of 19th century american children.  This is just a something I found myself curious about while reading the essay (so not really a flaw but a interest).  The last weakness within the paper is the title.  The paper does not form a examination of all working class children of the 19th century so this distinction should be made in the title to avoid confusion.

Overall I found Shannon's paper to be very infomative.  As all good research should do it has created further questions and interests in the reader.  I believe this paper is an  A-.

Post #5

   

In studying the American childhood it is important to study a full spectrum of the experiences children experience as they grow and how it affects them as a child and into adulthood.  One of the important experiences of ones childhood in many countries throughout the world is the gaining of some form of education.  The world we find ourself today is increasing reliant on communication which therefore creates a reliance on literacy.  Unfortunatly this important communication skill is not easily learned for many children of normal intelligence within our schools today.  These children are known as dyslexic and the concepts of language prove to be difficult for them and therefore can make the experience of childhood difficult as they try to adjust to a world that over the past century has become increasingly reliant on communication. 
    Dyslexia is a very complex disorder that is believed to effect 5 to 10 percent of our population within the United States.  Although dyslexia has been studied for well over 100 years, little is known about the causes of the disorder and how it affects the child in educational and social growth.  In attempting to understand our current concepts of what dyslexia is we must explore the disabilities social movement of the later 20th century to explore how dyslexia (learning disabilities) fit into the movement and explore some trends that are currently recognized that bring some question of what the legislation from these movements have brought.

Post #4: Make-up

Well since I am doing this a bit later than the September 29th date for this post I will make a few adjustments and make comments on other possible ideas for research papers about childhood that I might like to pursue if given the opportunity.  In retrospect I wish I would have chosen a topic that lent itself to the topic of childhood a bit more.  Exploring learning disabilities and the research and movements behind them have been very eye opening and beneficial for my future as an educator but the topic was surprisingly difficult to incorporate the voice of children.  The following is a list of potential topics that could be interesting:

1. Speilberg and his portrayal of Children within his movies.  Through most of movie history children play a peripheral role within many movie.  Speilberg seems to have interesting insights into the idea of childhood and it would be very interesting to explore how he portrays childhood and the way this has developed throughout his career.
2. Chistmas and Childhood: Christmas in modern times is thought of as a childhood holiday filled with wonder and excitement.  How has this concept of christmas developed over the last century to bring us to our modern version of chistmas and its showering of gifts.
3. Sports and Children: The concept of student athlete is a rather new concept in the history of childhood. How did the athletic events that were once contested in backyards and streets become the extracurricular activities of students in the educational systems of America? How did this change games for children and how did the athletics effect the schools.
4. Development of the Modern Public School System: With the increased interest in the education of children at the turn of the 20th century what was done to change the school systems? It would be interesting to study the curriculum the children studied to see how it changed to meet the needs of the changing industrial society. It could also be interesting to see how in small towns the schools became the center of the community.
5. Children in Movies: Children have been portrayed in many different ways in movies. What can one gather from how children are depicted in movies from different time periods? It would be interesting to see if their is any correlation between the struggle of children and adults within society and see how it is shown on the big screen.
6. Children and Video Games:  The video games industry has rapidly emerged over the past few decades and has become an important form of childhood play.  How did this occur and how has it changed traditional forms of childhood interactions within play.
7. Gender and Education: Gender plays a huge role in ones path to education. How does gender affect the daily relations of students?
8. Children of Modern War: With the concepts of total war that were popular in the early 20Th century how did children of war cope with the problems they faced during these periods.  How did these wars effect them as they grew to adulthood?  Where there any elements of childhood that were similar to times of no war.
9. Children of High Imperialism: OK this is a bit off from American childhood but I've been looking at this in other classes.  In a look at Africa during the age of high imperialism through the 1920's a look at the difficulties of the young rise to prominence and leadership in cultures that are traditionally elder based.  Torn between tradition and "westernization" how did these things effect their childhood.
10. Children of the Depression: The depression was a difficult time for many people in America. How did it affect the lives of children? How did the depression shape what many would consider as America's greatest workforce and the values of the following generations?

Some of these ideas were taken from my previous post of the ideas of topics and others were developed as I thought of neat ways to explore childhood and how different events can deeply effect how one grows to adulthood.  I believe many of these would make excellent topics for research and lend themselves to exploring the voice of children in different ways.

Rough Draft

Dyslexia and the Modern Childhood

In studying the American childhood it is important to study a full spectrum of the experiences children experience as they grow and how it affects them as a child and into adulthood.  In looking at this spectrum we must acknowledge the affect that learning disabilities and specifically the disorder known as dyslexia can effect all aspects of an individual’s childhood.  This disorder currently affects anywhere from 5 to 10 percent of our population.  Although dyslexia has been studied for well over 100 years now little is known about the causes the disorder and how it affects the child in educational and social growth.  In this paper we will examine the trends over the last forty years that must be identified and dealt with so growth in knowledge of this disorder does not hurt the development of this portion of our young population. 
             The word dyslexia itself is coined from the Greek. It simply means that a child displays poor ability to cope with language. The term that is now favored is developmental dyslexia, this is for two reasons first the child shows no signs of being handicap until they are confronted with reading and writing and the second reason is the child’s impairment gradually becomes worse as the growing demands of our literate society become greater. (Clarke, 35) Now in understanding this it is very important that one does not confuse dyslexia with all reading and writing problems. In fact the majority of individuals found to have dyslexia are actually found to be of normal to above normal intelligence. (Clarke 36)

Developmental Dyslexia was first identified in 1896 by an English doctor named Dr. W. Pringle Morgan. Another English doctor, James Hinshelwood, began studying the syndrome soon after and his work produced some devastating conclusions when they where published in 1917. Dr. Hinshelwood noted that “dyslexic children were likely to be harshly treated as imbeciles or incorrigibles and either neglected or punished for a defect for which they are in no wise responsible.”(Clarke 33) Although we have moved away in some ways from Dr. Hinshelwood’s conclusions on the dyslexic child we are still dealing with some of the same problems we have had over the last four decades.

Gender

There are more boys diagnosed with dyslexia by a ratio of 3:1 and this seems to be weighted in an unfair manor.  From my research it appears that girls are under diagnosed for a couple of reasons.  First girls tend to mature in reading and writing skills much faster than boys and this creates a focus on the slower developing boys in a classroom setting.  Secondly learning disability referrals are in some ways inadvertently used to create order and harmony within the classroom which once again creates a focus on the more disruptive male students.  It is unfortunate to see that girls are falling through the system but it is more understandable when looking closer at the facts.

Herman Epstein in 1975 performed a study in which girls were found to have greater prosperity than boys to reading and writing which could account for the higher percentage of dyslexic boys to girls consistently found within the education system of the

United States

.  To expound the study examined the rate of progress in reading and writing skills within groups of boys and girls and found that within the first years of learning up to the age of 7 girls progressed at much faster rate than their male counterparts.  The study continued to follow the same children and the trend continued to show that girls progressed further in reading and writing proficiency.  At the age of 15 the girls from the study began to plate while the boys experienced a steady growth of ability until the gender gap was found to close by the age of 18.  Due to boys slow development in reading and writing skills there is more attention paid to their "deficiency" in comparison to their female counterparts which would lead to increased attention from the instructor to possible problems in learning such as dyslexia.

Similarly gender bias within the classroom can lead to the skewing of the ratio of boys to girls that are found to have a learning disability or dyslexia.  According to "Gender Bias and Special Education" by K. Anderson the behavior of boys within the classroom demand more of a teachers attention and therefore more of there learning difficulties are observed. (Annals of Dyslexia 152) This is not all to be the fault of the teachers, where overcrowded classrooms and mounting responsibilities are part of our modern public school systems.  While boys are shown to be more aggressive with their frustration girls are found to be quite and meek.  As

Anderson

states the "girls good behavior frees the teacher to work with the more difficult to manage boys."(Annals of Dyslexia, 155)  Through the girls’ good behavior they go unnoticed and with that lack of the teacher’s attention their possible need for special education are overlooked.

Socioeconomic

In my research I have found numerous studies of individuals who have overcome the difficulties in learning that are associated with dyslexia.  The problem that is found with this is that the vast majority of the individuals that overcome the educational barriers that are associated with dyslexia come from social classes that can afford the early testing and resources that can help them reach success early while others are relegated to struggle and fall behind their peers.  Many have argued that dyslexia is not a socioeconomic disorder. With this being said it must also be understood that although dyslexia within a child may not be socioeconomically determined the problems faced by many dyslexics are socioeconomic based. In my examinations of the higher classes I have found very high levels of achievement throughout their scholastic endeavors and through adulthood.  The middle class has a fighting chance for success despite there school systems stagnate response to the issues of dyslexia and learning disabilities.  The position of those that fall in the lowest socioeconomic bracket is as you might expect, their struggles  paints a much bleaker picture for success due to fluctuations in funding and attention to problems in curriculum and special education.  Unfortunately all students should have a clear and bright future but a low socioeconomic status, as we will see, can muddy that outlook.

Let’s start this subject out on a happy note, dyslexic children of wealthy families get along just fine and are found to have high levels of achievement in adulthood.  In these independent and upper class suburban schools we find the parents to be very active and involved in the curriculum of there children.  As J. Chall points out in Learning to Read: The Great Debate the parents of these children do not ask for results they demand them.(Chall, 289)  Along with the parents demanding results from the school the parents also can afford the tutors and supplies needed to help their child overcome their education block.  We find these children to be the ones that obtain the early testing that helps them adjust to school and methods that they will be taught in at an early age.  Many of these children go on to be successful this can be illustrated by a study following the post graduate life’s of a

Baltimore

for boys.  In this study performed by Fenucci, Gottfred and Childs it was found that "these men had benefited from having been placed in a school environment that provided systematic instruction and encouraged accomplishment."(Annals of Dyslexia, 134)  The study also shows a much higher rate of these individuals receiving bachelor degrees and performing at higher level jobs than the individuals with dyslexia that could not afford the luxury of this type of schooling. 

Middle income schools are not as proficient at recognizing and assisting in compensating learning.  Unfortunately there are no special schools for the dyslexic middle class students.  Instead there educational burdens fall on the parents and the overtaxed school system.  Throughout educational history we find that middle class schools experience limited funding for programs and testing for dyslexia.  Therefore the responsibility to find tutors and educational resources for a dyslexic child falls directly on that child’s parent.  Along with this we have a middle class outlook on the educational system that if it isn't broke don't fix it. As Chall states "the middle socioeconomic group seems to remain quite satisfied with the status quo."(Chall) This trend has been consistent and "until the schools in the middle of the distribution commit themselves to improving reading instruction, reform efforts will remain a fringe movement, local and temporary."(ODS, 273)

Of course the students who are in the direst need of help are the ones that are looked over the most.  Parents are found to not play a strong enough role in deciding curriculum in urban schools which leaves innovation to be triggered by public concern over achievement.  Although "innovation" in these schools does exist during periods of concern it is short lived as funding for these schools does not remain consistent.(Annals of Dyslexia, 272)  Parents of low socioeconomic status are less available to the needs of their child and may be ignorant to the enrichment opportunities offered at the school.  As one might figure the lower the economic status of the individual the lower the amount of consistent help that is made available for dyslexia and other learning disabilities.

Methods of Teaching

Following the observation of possible dyslexia a process of testing ensues. The first step within this process is called a screening test. These tests are used on large numbers of children to identify possible reasons for their learning difficulties in school. They can be used to identify any number of learning disability ranging from ADHD, emotional problems, delayed learning and dyslexia just to name of few. If a child is flagged from this test to have dyslexia the next step would be the comprehensive tests for Dyslexia. This test examines the whole child and test areas of development in reading, spelling, drawing, math/science, and overall intelligence. On top of these tests the child is also tested for vision, laterality, visual scanning, and sequencing. These results are then compiled to create a profile on the child that can then be used to identify any possible links to developmental dyslexia.

Once a positive diagnosis of dyslexia is found a plan for educating the child must be established. Educators must create simultaneous multisensory instruction in which the dyslexic learner is able to use all their senses to learn and retain information. The instruction for the child is intense with leaving ample time for practice which is important because it is through repetition that the dyslexic learner makes progress. Synthetic and Analytical phonics are used in breaking down the words. The educator must be continually aware of their student’s ability in understanding and applying phonic rules to their learning.

The problem with educating the dyslexic reader first lies in with reading levels continually falling throughout the country how are we able to properly identify the dyslexic reader and provide help. Many school administrators according to M. Adams have spoken of there dissatisfaction with the courses that teach reading curriculum at the colleges and universities.(Adams, 269) These young teachers as one administrator would put it “are filled with all good intentions, often with high ideals for developing concepts, appreciation and interests but with little specific knowledge about how to proceed.”(Chall, 296) So with young teachers coming out of school with an improper background of knowledge to teach reading in the classroom not only are the disabled readers at a disadvantage all the students in this type of class setting will be put at a disadvantage. With these schools of higher learning failing to provide the educators of the last couple decades with the proper techniques and research for in class reading they must also hold the blame for the current problems we find in identifying the dyslexic readers within our schools.

Conclusion

            As you can see there is more that needs to be done to educate parents and professionals within our schools in identifying and properly educating dyslexic children within our schools.  No child should struggle and feel like they are not intelligent just because they learn a different way from others.  The effects of this disorder can linger far outside the walls of the classroom and have a damaging effect on a child’s perception of self and the world around them. 

Outline

Introduction

• Define Modern Dyslexia
• Brief History
• Thesis: In exploring childhood dyslexia it is important to examine the major trends found that has shaped the view of this disorder in modern times (1960 to present). **Needs Work**
• Trends that the paper will explore: Gender (3:1 Boys to Girls with Dyslexia Ratio), Socioeconomic (What effects do social class have on your chance for success?) and methods of teaching the dyslexic child (Is there anything that can be learned from this?)

Gender

There are more boys diagnosed with dyslexia by a ratio of 3:1 in comparison to girls.

• From research it appears that girls are under diagnosed with dyslexia and other learning disabilities for a couple of reasons.
• First: Girls mature in reading and writing skills faster than boys to the ages of 7 and 15.
• Second: Learning Disability referals are unintentionally used to maintain order in the classroom.  The more quite and timid girls tend to be looked over while failing.(Boys show frustration much more aggressively in the classroom.)
• Finally on Gender: What are the affects of having a problem that is overlooked?  How does it affect the child?  **This could also apply to others within class that are more timid and quite***

Socioeconomic

In my research I have found numerous studies of individuals who have overcome the difficulties in learning that are associated with dyslexia.  The problem that is found with this is that the vast majority of the individuals that overcome the educational barriers that are associated with dyslexia come from social classes that can afford the early testing and resources that can help them reach success early while others are relegated to struggle and fall behind their peers. 

High Socioeconomic standing

• Parents Demand Results
• Afford tools and testing
• Many catch problem at an early age which makes adjustments to learning easier
• Independent and Wealthy Suburban schools adapt for achievement: Earlier, Faster, Better
• Follow up study of Dyslexic School for Boys: Follow educational achievement and job standings following their graduation from the private school.

Middle Socioeconomic standing

• Burdens fall on parents and school system
• Schools limited funding for learning disabled programs and testing for dyslexia
• Parents lack of resources and time
• (Chall, 1967) "the middle socioeconomic group seems to remain quite satisfied with the status quo
• Need for commitment to reading instruction; This will create an environment that will improve the school systems ability to identify problem students.
• (Possibly use examples of parents struggling to get school to recognize their childs learning disability; This was the case with my brother)

Low Socioeconomic

• Parents are found overall to play less of a role in deciding curriculum in urban schools
• Innovation and funding triggered only by concerns of under achievement
• Funding not consistent
• Parents less available to the needs of their dyslexic child and may be ignorant to the enrichment opportunities available
• ***Funding not being consistent is very important***

The Identification and Teaching the Dyslexic Child

Testing

• Screening Tests: Used on large number of children to identify possibility of Dyslexia and other learning disabilities.
• Comprehension Tests: Examine whole child through-- reading, spelling , drawing, math/science, and intelligence--- also looks at visual tests, laterality tests, visual scanning tests, and sequencing
• If so many children are possibly being missed why isn't the test available to all at a young age so any learning disability can be identified and dealt with so methods can be incorporated into the way each child learns.

Methods of Teaching

• Outline the Orton and Gillington Model
• Educators must create simultaneous multisensory instruction in which the dyslexic learner is able to use all their senses to learn and retain information.

Dyslexic Child in the Classroom

• Stuggles of teacher to create proper curriculum
• Stuggles of Child....  Personal accounts

Conclusions

(These are the questions I'm asking myself as I work through this paper)

• Is the modern way of looking at dyslexia working?
  • To many are being struggling students are being missed and success ways of attacking the problem are not available to all.
• What can we do to move into the future to address our problems?
• Why are these issues of childhood dyslexia important?

Bibliography

Articles

Franklin, Barry M. "Writing the History of Learning Disabilities: Some First Accounts." History of Education Quarterly Vol. 29, no. 2 (1989): 286-292.

Grotberg, Edith H. "Learning Disabilities and Remediation in Disadvantaged Children." Review of Education Research Vol. 35, no. 5 (1965): 413-425.

Knight, Joan R., and International Dyslexia Association. Adults with Dyslexia: Aspiring and Achieving Orton Emeritus Series. Baltimore, MD.: International Dyslexia Asssociation, 1997.

Michael E. Hartley, Gill M. Thomson. "Self-Conept in Dyslexic Children." Academic Therapy 16, no. n1 (1980): 19-36.

Orton Dyslexia Society. "Annals of Dyslexia: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the Orton Dyslexia Society." v. Baltimore, Md.: The Society, 1982.

Orton Society. "Bulletin of the Orton Society." 31 v. Waterbury, Conn. etc.: Orton Society.

Stage, Frances K., and Nancy V. Milne. "Invisible Scholars: Students with Learning Disabilities." The Journal of Higher Education Vol. 67, no. 4 (1996): 426-445.

Books

Ansara, Alice. Sex Differences in Dyslexia. Towson, MD: The Orton Dyslexia Society, 1981.

Edwards, Janice Helena. The Scars of Dyslexia: Eight Case Studies in Emotional Reactions Cassell Education. New York, N.Y.: Cassell, 1994.

Evans, Martha M. Dyslexia: An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982.

Gilroy, Dorothy E., and T. R. Miles. Dyslexia at College. 2nd ed. London; New York: Routledge, 1996.

Huston, Anne Marshall. Common Sense About Dyslexia. Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1987.

Money, John, and Gilbert B. Schiffman. The Disabled Reader; Education of the Dyslexic Child. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1966.

Pollock, Joy, and Elisabeth Waller. Day to Day Dyslexia. London; New York: Routledge, 1994.

Purtell, Thelma C. Can't Read, Can't Write, Can't Talk Too Good Either: How to Recognize and Overcome Dyslexia in Your Child. Baltimore, Md.: Penguin Books, 1978.

Saul, Helen. Phobias: Fighting the Fear. 1st U.S. ed. New York: Arcade Pub., 2001.

Silver, Larry B., and National Institute of Dyslexia (U.S.). The Assessment of Learning Disabilities: Preschool through Adulthood. Boston: Little Brown, 1989.

Simpson, Eileen B. Reversals: A Personal Account of Victory over Dyslexia. New York: Washington Square Press, 1981.

Snowling, Margaret J. Dyslexia. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2000.

Wagner, Rudolph F. Dyslexia and Your Child: A Guide for Parents and Teachers. 1st ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1971.

#3: Topic Top 10 List

1) Children in Movies: Children have been portrayed in many different ways in movies. What can one gather from how children are dipicted in movies from different time periods? It would be interesting to see if their is any correlation between the stuggle of children and adults within society and see how it is shown on the big screen.

2) Sports and Children: The concept of student athlete is a rather new concept in the history of childhood. How did the athletic events that were once contested in backyards and streets become the extracurricular activities of students in the educational systems of america? How did this change games for children and how did the athletics effect the schools.

3) Children of War: It is interesting to see how children have been used over time in the time of war. How have they been manipulated through war propaganda and how does that affect their outlook of the world.

4) Disabled Children: In todays world mentally disabled children are given a chance to pursue an education and independence. It would be interesting to look at how these views have been developed and show how much they clash with how disabled children were viewed in the past.

5) Children of the Depression: The depression was a difficult time for many people in america. How did it affect the lives of children? How did the depression shape what many would consider as america's greatest workforce and the values of the following generations?

6) Development of the Modern Public School System: With the increased interest in the education of children at the turn of the 20th century what was done to change the school systems? It would be interesting to study the curriculum the children studied to see how it changed to meet the needs of the changing industrial society. It could also be interesting to see how in small towns the schools became the center of the community.

7) Children as Consumers: Through my readings and from what I see on television today I find it facinating how the media markets to children. When and why did children become such an important aspect of the consumer market?

8) Animation and Children: Children love watching stories in animation. It would be interesting to study why animation relies so heavly on animal characters.

9) Gender and Education: Gender plays a huge role in ones path to education. How does gender affect the daily relations of students?

10) Children and Learning Disabilities: The acceptance of learning disabilities is a fairly new idea. How does having a learning disability affect ones path towards education? What types of problems have school systems had in adjusting to accomodate to students who have problems? How does the family accept the idea of their child having a learning disability?

#2:Gender and Innocence

Children in America and The Children's Culture Reader provide us with a rich assortment of insight into the ever changing view of childhood. The topics focused on in our readings were gender differences in childhood and the innocence of childhood. Through these readings I found three sources of interest to discuss. The first two coming from Childhood in America look at how gender roles were enforced during the 18th and 19th century. Second from The Children's Culture Reader the idea of the changing culture of childhood.

Part 2 Boys and Girls in Childhood in America gives us a collection of sources showing how gender roles have been instilled in children over the last 400 years. The sources show a wide variety of ways in which these gender roles were created but I found the most interesting examples to involve children's form of dress, play, and literature. In "Suits and Frocks" Karin Calvert examines the forms of clothing and excepted forms of play for male and female children of the 18th century. In this Calvert shows the different expectations put upon children depending on gender. Girls were expected to dress and behave like little ladies. The dress of girls as Calvert explains was "in a fashion suitable for females at any age."(Children in America 84) These fashions were not suitable for rough outdoor play and girls were instead expected to concentrate on play was to prepare them for their roles later in society. Play with dolls and imaginary acts of older womens' work were acceptable forms of play for young women. The boys on the other hand were not restricted in the same way as the girls were by their clothing or the expectation of society. They were expected to be playful and adventurous. These roles were further enhanced by the literature of the time. An example of this would be Briar Rose written by The Brothers Grimm which gained popularity in the 19th century. In this story the princess lies in a deep sleep for 100 years waiting for here brave heroic prince to rescue here and lead her off into happiness. This story shows as Calvert stated "young girls were accepted as children but society still viewed their development as limited not worthy of particular attention."(84) Briar Rose was waiting, not dead but not fully alive until here prince came into her life and saved her. This perpetuates the view of women in this society only being prepared for their future as child bearers.

The other article of interest "The Making of Children's Culture" by Stephen Kline is from the Children's Culture Reader. In this article Kline examined the evolution and the institutions that have changed the culture of children in western societies. I found this of particular interest because of Kline's in site into the institutionalization of the school system for the training of children. This movement away from early training in work settings and focusing on training through an education in school is very interesting. What was the goals of the state in using laws and refocusing the energy of the children away from work? What were the changing thoughts about childhood during this time? How did the schools change to accommodate the new focus on education? These are a few of the many questions that would need to be asked to research this topic.